A conflict soon arose over who should be the next Imam. After also dying under suspicious circumstances, he was buried in a place that has come to be known asMashhad Place of Witness , one of the holiest sites in Iran. Muhammad al-Jawad died in Baghdad at the age of 25 and was buried next to Musa al-Kazim. Both are believed to have died of poisoning and were buried in the Iraqi city of Samarra. They further held that al-Mahdi had succeeded his father to the Imamate while remaining in concealment.
These doctrines were institutionalised at the end of the first half of the 10th century CE, after the line of 12 Imams had been identified. This period coincided with the rise of the Buyid , or Buwayhid Sultans ca. The Buyids were a military clan of Persian origin who came to power in Iran and Iraq and acted as overlords for the Sunni Abbasid Caliphs. It was under their influence that Imami theology developed its rationalistic inclination.
The earliest comprehensive collections of Imami traditions, which were first transmitted in Kufa and other parts of Iraq, were compiled in the Iranian city of Qum. The earliest and most authoritative of the Imami Hadith collections consist of four canonical compendia that deal with the subjects of theology and jurisprudence.
The Safavi order spread rapidly throughout Azerbaijan, eastern Anatolia, and other regions, acquiring influence over a number of Turkoman tribes. With the help of his Qizilbash forces, he speedily seized Azerbaijan and entered its capital, Tabriz, in The Safavid dynasty ruled Iran until CE.
The Safavid period witnessed a renaissance of Muslim sciences and scholarship. Mulla Sadra trained eminent students, such as Mulla Muhsin Kashani d. The Imami scholars, especially the jurists among them, played an increasingly prominent role in the affairs of the Safavid state. This trend reached its climax with Muhammad Baqir Majlisi d. Many of the Twelver scholars disagreed among themselves on theological and juristic issues and divided into two camps, generally designated as theAkhbari the traditionalist school and theUsuli the rationalist school.
Mulla Muhammad Amin Astarabadi d. The reestablishment of the Usuli school led to an unprecedented enhancement of the authority of the legal scholars under the Qajar dynasty of Iran r. This enhancement of scholarly status placed the practice oftaqlid, the imitation of a noted jurist, at the centre of Imami jurisprudence. Twelver legal scholars, who were often of Persian origin, were particularly active in India. The Adil-Shahis of Bijapur r. Sultan Quli r. In India, the Imami ulama encountered the hostility of the Sunnis.
Nur Allah Shushtari, an eminent Twelver theologian-jurist who emigrated from Iran to India and enjoyed some popularity at the Mughal court, was executed in CE at the instigation of the Sunni scholars. The first has been the expanding role and impact of European conquest and colonization in many parts of the Muslim world. The second has been the emergence of the modern nation-state as a means of uniting people with a common allegiance to territory and collective identity.
While Iran was never directly conquered and ruled by European powers, it was deeply affected by the contested claims of territorial domination by various European states, in particular Russia, France and Britain, all of which sought to cultivate a zone of influence in the region. One aspect of the response to European encroachment involved the modernisation of armies, the appropriation of technology and industry, and the gradual absorption of different systems of education and constitutional reforms.
Changes took place unevenly in urban and rural areas, among various groups, and even within individual states. In general, traditional patterns of religious and educational life continued or even intensified in response to perceived alien influences. In Iran, the religious scholars played an important role in helping the Qajar rulers resist Russian imperial designs and protested strongly against the granting of concessions by the state to foreign powers.
A far more important debate also arose over the acceptance of constitutional ideas from Europe and their adaptation to the traditionally ruled Muslim state. In Iran, this led to a series of dramatic changes. Between and , there took place a constitutional revolution, aimed at reframing the rules of governance and limiting the role of the absolute Qajar monarchs. Reza Shah Pahlavi r. His son and successor, Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi , continued the general policies of his father.
In the s, a strong secular nationalist movement led by Dr. Mohammed Mossadegh gained strength. A number of religious leaders came to be regarded as successors to the great Ayatollah Burujirdi d. Eventually, the Middle East was divided into several spheres of influence and Iraq came to be governed under a British mandate, which led to the appointment of King Faisal I r.
In , there was a coup by army officers, leading to the execution of King Faisal II and a sustained period of instability. Subsequently, another military dictatorship was established in Iraq by Saddam Hussein, during whose long rule all religious opposition was brutally suppressed.
During the s, a lesser known but politically active Iranian religious scholar named Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini called for the abolition of the monarchy in Iran. He was sent into exile in Iraq, where he continued his oppostion to the Iranian regime.
There were also other intellectuals, not directly linked to the religious authorities, who challenged the status quo in Iran. Traditionally trained scholars, such as Murtaza Mutahhari, also added their voices to the mounting opposition. However, Khomeini marshaled the forces of opposition to the Shah most successfully. After the revolution, a constitutional structure emerged in Iran that institutionalised the role of the Twelver scholars as representatives of the Hidden Imam and guardians of the state.
An institutionalised ideology,vilayat-i faqih the authority of the jurist , was written into the Iranian constitution. This ideology established a leading role for the supreme religious leader in the affairs of the state, while also allowing for an elected legislative body, themajlisor parliament, and an elected president. For resisting the tyrannical rule of the second Umayyad Caliph Yazid, Imam Husayn and his followers were massacred at Karbala, in present day Iraq.
In the absence of the Imam,ijtihadcould only be exercised by competent and qualified religious scholars. Such individuals, called mujtahids , became the major source of authoritative guidance on daily issues facing believers. These scholars received their training in centres where religious learning was preserved and transmitted. In addition to centres in Iraq, such as in Najaf and Karbala, there were also important institutions of religious learning in Iran - in Qum, Mashhad and Isfahan - and subsequently in the Indian subcontinent.
At majalis , sessions devoted to the commemoration of the martyrdom of Imam Husayn, preachers recount the events of his death in sermons known asrawda-khani,and prayers are offered.
The gathering places at which such events take place are known asHusayniyyas orImambaras,which consist of extensive, decorated structures adorned with images that recall the tragedy.
By the middle of the 9th century CE, they had settled in Salamiyya in Syria. During this period, they concealed their identity from the public and sought to consolidate and organise the widely dispersed Ismaili community. The Fatimid territories participated vigorously in international trade with North Africa, Nubia, the Middle East, Europe, Byzantium Constantinople in particular , the islands of the Mediterranean andIndia.
Agriculture advanced to a level of general self-sufficiency; industry received active stimulus from the state and helped boost both inland and maritime trade.
It was, however, in the sphere of intellectual life that the Fatimid achievement seems most brilliant and outstanding. The Fatimid rulers were lavish patrons of learning. Their encouragement of scientific research and cultural pursuits attracted the finest minds of the age to the Caliphal court in Cairo, regardless of religious persuasion. Such luminaries included mathematicians and physicists, astronomers, physicians, historians, geographers and poets. This institution, with its library of over , manuscripts, was open to followers of different religions.
The impact of this cultural and intellectual flowering was not limited to the Muslim world. The influence of the academic institutions of Cairo and other centres of Ismaili scholarship spread into Europe, contributing significantly to the development of scientific thought and philosophy in the West.
Nasir-i Khusraw d. In the same vein, Hasan-i Sabbah d. For appointments in the Fatimid judiciary, as in other branches of government, merit was a primary criterion. The period of Fatimid rule is also noteworthy for the support and encouragement given to Christians and Jews within the state.
The seat of the Nizari Imamate moved to Iran, where the Ismailis had already succeeded, under the leadership of Hasan-i Sabbah, in establishing a state comprising a network of fortified settlements. With its headquarters at Alamut , in northern Iran, the Nizari state later extended to parts of Syria. Although there were continual wars among Muslims over issues of power and territory, this period of Muslim history does not paint a simple canvas of one camp fighting another.
The military situation was further complicated by the presence of the Crusaders , who were in contact with the Nizari Ismailis of Syria.
Shifting alliances among all these different groups was the normal order of the times. In these trying times of struggle, military encounters and changing alliances, the Ismailis of the Alamut state did not forsake their intellectual and literary traditions. Their fortresses housed impressive libraries with collections of books on various religious subjects and included philosophical and scientific tracts as well as scientific equipment.
Nor did the hostile environment force the Nizari Ismailis to abandon their liberal policy of patronage to men of learning, which benefited Muslim as well as non-Muslim scholars and scientists. Their settlements in Iran also served as sanctuaries for waves of refugees, irrespective of creed, who fled both local conflicts and the Mongol onslaught.
Alamut finally fell to the Mongols in CE. The Ismailis who remained in Iran had to protect their identity to escape persecution. Given the esoteric nature of their tradition, Sufi orders often provided hospitality to the Ismailis. During this difficult phase, the institution of the Ismaili Imamate retained its resilience. In the 14th century, under the influence of the Nizari Imams, new centres of Nizari activity were established in the Indian subcontinent, Afghanistan, the mountainous regions of Hindukush, Central Asia, and parts of China.
In South Asia, the Nizari Ismailis became known as Khojas , and they developed a distinctive devotional literature known as the Ginans. The modern Nizari Ismaili community has a global presence. The roots of the Sunni-Shia divide can be traced all the way back to the seventh century, soon after the death of the prophet Muhammad in A.
Ali eventually became the fourth caliph or Imam, as Shiites call their leaders , but only after the two that preceded him had both been assassinated. Ali, himself, was killed in , as the bitter power struggle between Sunni and Shia continued.
This combination of money and power would only grow. A massive Sunni army waited for them, and by the end of a day standoff with various smaller struggles, Hussein was killed and decapitated, and his head brought to Damascus as a tribute to the Sunni caliph. In addition to Karbala, the NPR podcast Throughline identified three key milestones that would sharpen Sunni-Shia divisions by the end of the 20th century.
First came the rise of the Safavid dynasty in the 16th century, which transformed Iran through force from a Sunni center into the Shia stronghold of the Middle East. In the early 20th century, the victorious Allies divided the territory held by the former Ottoman Empire after World War I , cutting through centuries-old religious and ethnic communities in the process. Finally, in , the Islamic Revolution in Iran produced a radical brand of Shia Islam that would clash violently with Sunni conservatives in Saudi Arabia and elsewhere in the decades to follow.
The Apostle of Allah said to Ali: " - - - You and your descendants are mediators for mankind as they [human beings] will not be able to know God except through your introduction" Donaldson , Consensus and analogy can be applied by those scholars who are highly knowledgeable in the Koran, the traditions of the prophet, and Islamic law, and practice the faith in every facet of their lives. The sources of Muslim law in Shiism are somewhat similar to those in Sunni Islam, namely the Koran, Muhammad's practices, consensus, and analogy.
However, the determination of consensus is related to the views of the Imams, and more freedom is given to analogy than in Sunni Islam Nasr , Sunni Muslims strongly believe that the redemption of human beings is dependent on faith in Allah, His prophets, acceptance of Muhammad as the final prophet, and belief in righteous deeds as explained in the Koran.
The mercy of Allah will determine the redemption of all human beings. Even the prophet Muhammad is at the mercy of Allah. There are many other verses in the Koran which enumerate that the basis of paradise is the mercy of Allah and the righteous deeds of human beings according to the Koran and Hadith. Shiite Muslims are guaranteed paradise if they obey and follow Muhammad and the Twelve Imams.
They are considered righteous Muslims, and the Twelve Imams are particularly respected because of their relationship to Ali and his wife Fatima, the daughter of Muhammad. Sunnis believe that Ali and his two sons, Hassan and Hussain, were highly respected by the first three Caliphs and the companions of Muhammad.
Any righteous and knowledgeable Sunni Muslim can serve as an Imam with the prime function of leading the prayers and interpreting the Koran and Hadith provided he is well versed in these subjects. Sunnis also consider it heretical to impute to human beings attributes of Divine nature such as infallibility and the knowledge of all temporal and cosmic matters. The highest ranking present-day Imams Ayatollahs are believed to receive their guidance and spiritual enlightenment directly from the "Twelve Imams," who stay in continuous contact with their followers on earth every day through contemporary spiritual leaders.
The Ayatollahs thus play a vital mediatory role. Because of their spiritual role, Ayatollahs cannot be appointed by governments, but only by consensus of other Ayatollahs.
Differences in Religious Organization The differences between Sunni and Shiite Islam are more than theological and historical. They are embedded in the social and political structure of the Middle East. Sunnis and Shiites form distinct communities. Conversions from Shiism to Sunnism and vice versa are rare, and Sunnis and Shiites are expected to marry members of their own community.
The vital moments of life-marriage, birth, and death-are commemorated within the framework of the rituals of the community. Members of each community learn about Islam within the traditions of their own faith, and under the guidance of their faith's religious teachers.
Despite these traditions, the political loyalties of Sunnis and Shiites are affected by their country of citizenship and nationality. In , Iran, a Shiite country whose language and culture are Farsi Persian , was invaded by Iraq, an Arab country with a Sunni leadership but a Shiite majority in the population.
Despite Iranian appeals, most Iraqi Shiites remained loyal to Iraq, performing military service when required during the Iran-Iraq war. Both Sunni and Shiite Islam are organized in ways that reflect their beliefs. In view of the emphasis of mainstream Shiism on the role of the Imamate, it is not surprising that the Shiites have a more elaborate religious hierarchy than Sunni Muslims. With the exception of post-revolutionary Iran, the Shiite clergy has been more independent of the government than religious officials have been in Sunni Muslim countries.
Shiite religious officials have had less need to rely on secular governments for money to finance their activities, since they control substantial religious endowments. In the Shiite communities, the most important appointments to senior religious positions are made by Shiite religious officials, not by the state. In Sunni countries, in contrast, it is typical for governments to exercise control over the appointment of senior religious officials.
These governments have also assumed the right to allocate large religious endowments through government ministries created for that purpose. This makes high-ranking Sunni clergy more dependent on the government than their Shiite counterparts.
Sunnis are also more open than Shiites to the idea that the leading of prayers and preaching can be done by lay persons without formal clerical training. In view of the power of the Shiite clergy, it is not surprising that they play an important political role.
Led by the Ayatollah Khomeini, the clergy organized the revolution that overthrew the Shah of Iran in and turned the country into an Islamic Republic. Shiite clergy have also been prominent in opposition movements in Iraq and Lebanon.
Islamic Political Movements Both Shiite and Sunni Muslim political movements have as a primary objective the establishment of Islamic law as the sole basis of government.
They reject secularism as an imported western idea, and are opposed to several kinds of social change that use the west as a model, such as changes in the status of women. Political movements with a religious message have a popular appeal in many Muslim countries.
This is partly because of the religious outlook of the people. But it is also because the leaders of these movements are addressing the political issues of the day. One of the reasons for the fall of the Shah of Iran was that his secularizing policies alienated the religious establishment. In contrast, the monarchs of oil-rich Sunni Muslim countries have made a greater effort to keep their policies in line with religious sensitivities.
Another very important reason for the fall of the Shah was the widespread discontent with his development policies favoring rich and westernized groups. The Shah spent a great deal of the country's oil wealth on military and civilian projects thought by many to be poorly conceived. Iran was a more populous country than other oil-rich Middle Eastern states, so its oil wealth spread less widely among the people.
The effect of the Shah's westernizing development policies was to produce a new bourgeois class that was a target of hatred and resentment for poor people. In addition, like nationalist and leftist Iranian parties, the clergy vehemently attacked the Shah's ties to the West.
In spite of their religious orientation, many of the issues addressed by the Islamic movements are the same political or social issues that concern secular politicians. The movements attack government corruption and the gulf between rich and poor. In Iraq and Lebanon, where Shiite communities are poorer than the Sunni and Christian communities, resentment at perceived discrimination has also allowed Shiite movements to mobilize grassroots support.
Problems of corruption and poverty are also invoked by Sunni movements in countries such as Egypt and Algeria, though these movements have so far not been able to obtain support from high-level religious leaders of a stature comparable to the Ayatollah Khomeini before the Iranian revolution.
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